Positive reinforcement is at work when consequences that follow a skill or behavior result in an increase in that skill or behavior by the toddler. For example, when dumping shapes in a shape sorter results in well-loved tickles the toddler is even more likely to continue using the shape sorter. Another toddler may be reinforced to allow his shoes to be put on by mom if this activity is directly followed by outside play.
Reinforcement must be meaningful to the toddler. If the reinforcer chosen holds no value to the child it is very unlikely to affect her behavior. For example, while many toddlers are reinforced by social attention and physical affection, some children with autism spectrum disorders may find these aversive. For these toddlers, social praise and physical affection is unlikely to elicit increases in skill or behavior. Conducting a reinforcement sampling better ensures that reinforcers are individualized.
As possible, reinforcers should be natural and related to the skill or behavior. Natural reinforcers are those that would have occurred anyway if the toddler engaged in the skill/behavior. When teaching a toddler to request, the toddler’s requests should, as possible, be immediately followed by a related response to each request.
Multiple reinforcers are more effective than a single reinforcer (Alberto & Troutman, 2008). Pairing reinforcers helps to increase value for the toddler. A toddler, who enjoys mom’s attention, will be more likely to consistently sign for “help” by getting help from mom along with her smile and a cheerful “yay.”
Recognize and plan for the potential of satiation. When the reinforcer is overused it may lose value for the toddler. A toddler may not be interested in learning to put pieces in a puzzle if after every piece placed in the puzzle he gets a fuzzy ball to play with before returning to the puzzle. He may enjoy the activity and be more likely to place the pieces if the reinforcer is provided after the entire puzzle is completed. Additionally, a toddler may not find value in completing a cleanup routine if he is being reinforced by crackers just after his lunch. More information on the importance of schedules for reinforcement follows.
The following steps describe the process by which to identify the toddler’s skill or behavior that will be targeted for the Positive Reinforcement intervention. The planning steps also describe how to identify and select reinforcers. Finally, this planning section describes schedules for reinforcement.
Beginning with the IFSP, the EI team discusses with the parent the strengths and challenges of the toddler in meeting a priority outcome and then describes the target skill. The IFSP outcome should be observable and measurable in order to be able to clearly describe the expected skill that the toddler will learn and how to determine when the toddler has mastered the skill.
EXAMPLE
Parents discussed with the providers that their toddler, Jonathan, doesn’t interact with them or his 5 year old sister at home.
The IFSP team initially wrote the outcome as: “Jonathan will play with his sister after day care.”
While the outcome describes the family’s hope, it is not observable and measurable and thus difficult to observe progress on over time. Different people would have different ideas of what “play” means and what it would mean for Jonathan to do it successfully. This IFSP outcome was re-written so that it was observable and measurable. To do this, the team clearly described the context (WHEN), the target skill the toddler will perform (WHAT) and how will we know Jonathan has mastered this skill (HOW).
New outcome: After daycare and before dinner, Jonathan will send at least 5 minutes interacting with his toys within 3 feet of his sister for 4 out of 5 days.
Once target behaviors are described, the EI team and parents identify everyday activities and routines within which to use positive reinforcement to increase the toddler’s behavior. Using favorite activities and routines will further increase motivation through the use of natural reinforcers for the toddler. Using family activities and routines will also support the family and other caregivers in implementing reinforcement on their own.
EXAMPLE
The team and family might decide to use reinforcement of the toddler’s requesting behaviors (signing “more” and reaching, saying “I want ___”) during highly preferred routines such as bath or snack.
For Jonathan, described in example for Step 1.1, the team might identify all the times when Jonathan and his sister have opportunities to play at the same time.
Reinforcement is usually implemented in conjunction with other evidence-based practices (e.g., prompting, activity-systems, naturalistic interventions, discrete trial training).
If another evidence-based practice is being implemented review the module for that practice from the Autism Internet Modules or review the EBP Brief at the NPDC on ASD website.
Once the behavior (or skill) and activities and routines are identified, the team and family collect data on that behavior within those activities or routines. This will determine how often the toddler uses the target behavior, if at all.
If an accurate baseline is not established the EI team is unlikely to develop appropriate goals and criteria by which to measure progress. Further, the EI team is unlikely to be able to make the right adjustments to the implementation of reinforcement and other evidence-based practice necessary to support the toddler and family’s success.
Review the criteria written into the IFSP outcome to identify what type of data to collect. These types of data might include the following:
Frequency Data. Frequency data measure how often the toddler engages in the skill/behavior. Data are collected through time sampling or event sampling.
When using time sampling, data are collected after a certain amount of time has passed (e.g. every 5 minutes). For example, if collecting data on frequency of screaming behavior a parent or provider would mark if the behavior happened every 5 minutes. This technique is useful for behaviors the toddler engages in frequently such as for engagement and parallel play. For Jonathan, the team could take data every 3 minutes on whether he was engaging in play within the target distance from his sister.
Event sampling is used by marking every time that the toddler engages in the skill/behavior. This technique is used for low frequency behaviors or skills such as requesting help, playing specifically with a toy, helping put on clothes, and so on. For Jonathan, the team could mark down every time he engaged directly with his sister during play.
Date |
# of Requests |
Total |
---|---|---|
9/17/2012 |
X |
1 |
9/18/2012 |
X |
1 |
9/19/2012 |
XXX |
3 |
9/20/2012 |
XXXX |
4 |
Duration data. Duration data are used to record the length of time that the toddler engages in the skill/behavior. For example, a parent or provider might collect data on how long a toddler sits at the table during dinner before demanding to be let down. A parent or provider might collect data on how long the toddler spends playing with one open-ended toy before moving on to something else. For Jonathan, the team could take data on how long he engages in parallel play with his sister.
Date |
Start Time |
End Time |
Total Time |
Which Bathroom Used |
---|---|---|---|---|
7/4/12 |
7:18 |
7:21 |
3 |
Guest |
7/5/12 |
6:55 |
6:59 |
4 |
Guest |
7/7/12 |
7:02 |
7:07 |
5 |
Master |
7/8/12 |
7:22 |
7:24 |
2 |
Guest |
If the baseline is not stable, the team will not know whether it was the implementation of reinforcement that produced a change in the toddler’s behavior or use of a skill. A stable baseline helps the team know whether their use of reinforcement is impacting the toddler’s behavior.
Baseline data should be graphed in order to best determine if a trend is stable such as in the following graphs. In both of the graphs below a stable trend can be identified. While the graph on the left is more erratic, it is clear that the frequency or duration of the behavior is at the level of a 2 and that the level is overall flat. The graph on the right clearly slows an increasing trend. Generally, at least 3 data points are needed to begin to identify a trend.
Now that the team and family have identified skills/behaviors and routines, they determine the criteria that will be used to evaluate whether their use of positive reinforcement is effective. First, the team and family double check that the outcome is still appropriate given the baseline data collected. If it is not, the outcome is revised as described in the first step.
EXAMPLE
After daycare and before dinner, Jonathan will send at least 5 minutes interacting with his toys within 3 feet of his sister for 4 out of 5 days.
In Jonathan’s outcome there are multiple, clear criteria by which to measure success:
Each of these are important to track to identify when Jonathan is having trouble or making progress.
A data sheet for Jonathan’s IFSP outcome would include the following:
The goal of reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that the toddler with ASD will use the target skill again in the future. Therefore, selected reinforcers should be highly motivating to the toddler with ASD, naturally reinforcing, and tied to the activity or routine within which the target skill or behavior will be most likely used by the toddler.
When choosing reinforcers for toddlers with ASD, the EI team identifies:
For example, a toddler may continually request Goldfish crackers that are placed on a high shelf; however, the EI provider or parent only gives the toddler the Goldfish crackers a few times a day.
EI providers, parents, and/or caregivers identify a reinforcer that is appropriate for the target skill and routine or activity.
Primary reinforcers satisfy a physical need by making the toddler feel good (e.g., food, liquids, sleep).
Secondary reinforcers are objects or activities that the toddler has grown to like, but does not need biologically (e.g., tickles, stickers, ball play).
The chosen reinforcer should be as natural as possible. That is, it should be related to the activity that is going on. For example, it would be natural for a toddler with ASD to get free time or have access to a preferred activity/object after taking part in a challenging, non-preferred learning activity. Another example would be to use food as a reinforcer during food-related activities such as snack time or lunch when the target skill is requesting.
The family and other caregivers are likely to give valuable information about the toddler’s preferences. The Early Preschool Interest-Based Everyday Activity Checklist [ PDF file ] is one example of a checklist to use to gather information from the toddler’s family about preferred activities. This checklist provides information on activities that are reinforcing as well as the frequency of these activities within family routines and can be found at the Family, Infant, and Preschool Program Center for the Advanced Study of Excellence (CASE) website: www.fipp.org
In order to decide which reinforcers, among many, are most likely to be effective conduct a reinforcement sampling. There are a number of options for completing reinforcer sampling; however, for toddlers who may have limited communication skills, the following steps are suggested:
- Gather a selection of items that may be favorable to the toddler. These items can be identified by asking caregivers and observing the toddler.
- Present the toddler with pairs of choices, being sure to match each item at least once with the other items being sampled. This is to determine relative preference. Also, vary left and right presentation throughout to minimize the possibility that the toddler is choosing one object from a particular side (e.g. side preference).
- Document the items chosen most often, least often, or that produce a notable response (e.g., the toddler throws the item after choosing it). Toddler Activities, Reinforcer Sampling, or Preference Assessment Menu (Fisher et al., 1992)
Date |
Reinforcer 1 |
(+) or (-) |
Reinforcer 2 |
(+) or (-) |
Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5/01/12 |
Bubbles |
+ |
Coloring/drawing |
- |
|
5/01/12 |
Bubbles |
+ |
Squishy ball |
- |
|
5/01/12 |
Play Doh |
- |
Squishy ball |
+ |
|
5/01/12 |
Squishy ball |
+ |
Favorite book |
- |
|
5/01/12 |
Favorite book |
+ |
Play doh |
- |
|
5/02/12 |
Favorite book |
- |
Duplo Blocks |
+ |
|
5/02/12 |
Duplo Blocks |
+ |
Play doh |
- |
|
5/02/12 |
Duplo Block |
+ |
Coloring/drawing |
- |
|
5/02/12 |
Playdoh |
+ |
Coloring/drawing |
- |
|
5/02/12 |
Swinging |
+ |
Sitting in rocking chair |
- |
Super excited |
5/02/12 |
Swinging |
+ |
Trampoline |
- |
About swing! |
The following video demonstrates a provider using the reinforcement sampling technique to identify which object is most or least motivating to the child. The provider introduces the toddler to two objects and watches which object the child explores or plays with more enthusiastically or for a longer period of time.
Through the above steps, the team develops a list of reinforcers and reinforcing activities.
The schedule for reinforcement refers to the timing and frequency of the delivery of reinforcement after the toddler performs the skill/behavior. Reinforcement is delivered either continuously or intermittently.
Generally, continuous reinforcement means the reinforcement is delivered each time the toddler uses the skill/behavior until the skill/behavior is learned. Continuous reinforcement helps the toddler learn new skills quickly, but can lead to satiation. Once the toddler learns the behavior, as evidenced by them meeting a pre-established criterion, the reinforcement may be delivered intermittently. Intermittent reinforcement helps to maintain the skill/behavior over time, and should be used after the toddler learns the new skill/behavior.
Moving from a continuous to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement is an example of reinforcement fading. Fading of reinforcement is an important step to helping the toddler learn to use the skill without the need of secondary reinforcers so that he or she can better generalize the target skill/behavior to other people, places, and activities. Intermittent reinforcement schedules can be either ratio or interval. Ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after the toddler does the skill/behavior. Interval schedule reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of time has passed.
Both ratio and interval schedules can be fixed or variable. Once the toddler learns the skill better, using these schedules ensures higher rate of success since the toddler isn’t aware of when reinforcement will be provided. Providers and families generally use a variable schedule as they provide reinforcement. At home, mom and dad have their attention pulled in various directions and will find it more challenging to provide reinforcement for every occurrence of the toddler’s skill/behavior. The following chart describes in more detail the differences between these reinforcement schedules.
The following video shows an example of fixed ratio reinforcement and variable ratio reinforcement.
In determining the best schedule for providing reinforcement to the toddler remember the following:
The following table summarizes the different reinforcement schedules:
The practice scenarios for using the evidence-based practice (EBP) follows a toddler example through each of the implementation steps. The practice scenarios are followed by a Knowledge Check for each step. We recommend that you select and follow the same setting (home or center-based) throughout the module steps.
If you have trouble viewing, review the Troubleshooting Tips
What type of reinforcement schedule is best for maintaining a skill or behavior that the toddler has already learned?
When teaching a new skill, which reinforcement schedule is most effective to start with?
What are at least three types of reinforcers?
The following steps describe the process of using Positive Reinforcement through implementation of continuous reinforcement and preventing satiation.
When first learning a behavior (or skill), a toddler needs to know when she is doing the behavior and doing it correctly.
Reinforcement needs to occur, as possible, after every occurrence of the behavior.
Reinforcement works because the toddler is motivated to do the skill or behavior in order to get something he desires. Thus it is important to plan for how to keep the desired item, food, activity, or thing motivating to the toddler and to prevent satiation.
Remember that as with anyone, what is motivating today may not be as motivating tomorrow.
Tips for Preventing Satiation |
|
---|---|
To Avoid Satiation: |
Examples: |
|
After conducing reinforcer sampling, observation, and/or interest inventory keep on hand a number of the reinforcers identified. |
|
If the toddler very much enjoys tickles and silly faces, alternate tickles or silly faces when providing reinforcement for a skill/behavior. If the same toddler also enjoys pretzels, consider keeping pretzels as reinforcer for snack time and tickles are reinforcers for playtime. |
|
Several short sessions helps to ensure that the toddler won’t tire of the reinforcer before he has enough opportunities to practice the skill/behavior. |
|
Edibles (a primary reinforcer) should be used only when other reinforcers have not been identified or if the edible is a natural reinforcer (e.g., the toddler requests juice then juice is provided). If used, various types should be used and they should be paired with other types of reinforcement. |
|
Since toddlers with ASD are less likely than their typically developing peers to value secondary reinforcers, pair these with more valued reinforcers from the beginning. As the toddler becomes more motivated by secondary reinforcer, fade the primary reinforcer. |
|
If the toddler stops using the skill or behavior after mastering it or shows disinterest in reinforcer, change it. An inventory or reinforcer sampling may need to be repeated if no other reinforcers are immediately apparent. |
The following video clip shows the ways in which a reinforcer is provided in small segments throughout a task to maintain interest on the task and avoid satiation.
The practice scenarios provide examples of using the evidence-based practice (EBP) and follow a toddler situation through each of the implementation steps. A knowledge check follows the practice scenarios.. We recommend that you select and follow the same setting (home or center-based) throughout the module steps.
If you have trouble viewing, review the Troubleshooting Tips
An almost three year old has learned to take turns with his brother during short games. All of a sudden, he does not want to take turns anymore, which distresses his brother.
What issues related to reinforcement might be at work?
When implementing reinforcement providing large amounts of the reinforcer should be avoided. Why?
When implementing reinforcement it may be necessary to pair reinforcers (such as social reinforcers with primary reinforcers). Why?
The following steps describe how the implementation of Positive Reinforcement is monitored and how to adjust the implementation plan based on the data.
Data must be taken and monitored in order to determine if the planned intervention is working and when reinforcement can be gradually faded. Fading reinforcement is very important to promote generalization and maintenance of the toddler’s use of the skill or behavior.
Data should be taken on the data sheets developed for the baseline data, unless through the course of intervention it is determined by the team and family that other information will be most useful. By using the same data collection sheets, the team and family can track the toddler’s performance before reinforcement was implemented and after it was implemented. Therefore, the team and family will be better able to see if the toddler shows an increase in using the target skill/behavior after they implemented reinforcement. If not, changes will need to be made to the intervention plan such as using different reinforcers, reinforcing more consistently, saving reinforcers for teaching times only, and so on.
Data on how frequently Jack requests for snack during snack time by pointing to the food or approximating the food “cracker.”
Date |
# of Requests |
Total |
---|---|---|
9/18/2012 |
X |
1 |
9/18/2012 |
X |
1 |
9/19/2012 |
XXX |
3 |
9/20/2012 |
XXXX |
4 |
9/22/2012 |
XXXX |
4 |
9/22/2012 |
XXXXXXX |
7 |
9/23/2012 |
XXXXXX |
6 |
9/24/2012 |
XXXXXXX |
7 |
9/25/2012 |
XXXXXXXX |
8 |
Data on the length of time Caroline spends in bath before demanding to be taken out.
Date |
Start Time |
End Time |
Total Time |
Bathroom Used |
---|---|---|---|---|
7/4/12 |
7:18 |
7:21 |
3 |
Guest |
7/5/12 |
6:55 |
6:59 |
4 |
Guest |
7/7/12 |
7:02 |
7:07 |
5 |
Master |
7/8/12 |
7:22 |
7:24 |
2 |
Guest |
7/10/12 |
6:45 |
6:47 |
2 |
Guest |
7/11/12 |
7:00 |
7:07 |
7 |
Guest |
7/12/12 |
7:05 |
7:14 |
9 |
Master |
7/14/12 |
7:05 |
7:17 |
12 |
Master |
As the toddler moves towards meeting the outcome criterion, the team and family begin to fade or move from a continuous schedule of reinforcement to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement. Return to Step 1.6 for a review of intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
Fading reinforcement from a continuous schedule (every time the toddler performs the skill or behavior) to intermittent schedule helps the toddler learn to use the skill or behavior more frequently, to maintain the behavior over longer periods of time, and reinforces the behavior with more available reinforcers (e.g., praise, natural consequences).
Data are taken throughout this process to make sure that fading in reinforcement is not causing a decrease in the use of the skill or behavior.
EXAMPLE
After daycare and before dinner, Jonathan will send at least 5 minutes interacting with his toys within 3 feet of his sister for 4 out of 5 days.
Reinforcement for acquisition: While learning the skill, the EI provider and mom reinforce Jonathan with praise and access to a preferred toy every 30 seconds that he plays within 3 feet of his sister.
Reinforcement for maintenance: Once Jonathan is consistently playing with his preferred toys within 3 feet of his sister, the EI provider and mom provide less preferred toys until he again reaches criterion. After that criterion is reached social praise is provided every 2 minutes.
Data collection and review provides visual evidence of the effectiveness of the reinforcement strategy being used. If the skill or behavior is not increasing, the EI team and family must try to identify the reason why.
The practice scenarios provide example cases of using the evidence-based practice (EBP) that follow a toddler case through each of the implementation steps, following the Knowledge Check. We recommend that you select and follow the same setting (home or center-based) throughout the module steps.
If you have trouble viewing, review the Troubleshooting Tips.
Collecting implementation data on the same data sheets as baseline data is helpful in order to __________________.
What are the benefits to moving from a continuous to an intermittent reinforcement schedule?